Nucleic acids are long chainlike molecules composed of a series of nearly identical building blocks callednucleotides. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Figure \(\PageIndex{28}\): Intermolecular triplex formation and their oligonucleotide sequences (where and - indicates Hoogsteen and WatsonCrick base pairings, respectively). However as our ability to record information on silicon has advanced, little attention has been given to research into genetic computers.. The tRNA carries an amino acid, our ingredient to make the protein. RNA can serve as a messenger to build proteins using information coded by DNA, migrating from the nucleus where DNA "lives" to other parts of the cell to carry this out. Nucleic acids are macromolecules that store genetic information and enable protein production. Decades of research have established that the m7G cap serves as a unique molecular module that recruits cellular proteins and mediates cap-related biological functions such as pre-mRNA processing, nuclear export and cap-d mRNA capping: biological functions and applications Nucleic Acids Res. 2023 Leaf Group Ltd. / Leaf Group Media, All Rights Reserved. mRNA is like a recipe from a cookbook; a list of ingredients to make a protein. Thus, when each strand of the double-stranded parental DNA molecule separates during replication from its complement, each serves as a template for synthesizing a new complementary strand. Replication or Self-duplication of DNA is an enzyme-catalysed process, where the two strands of DNA unwind, and each strand serves as a pattern for the new strand synthesis. Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Other properties of nucleic acids may influence DNA expression in more subtle ways, such as by sticking together and making it harder for transcription enzymes to access the code they store. Protein and nucleic acid enzymes catalyze biochemical reactions in both . How do mRNA and tRNA communicate with eachother during the formation of the proteins? The 4 main groups of biological macromolecules are nucleic acids, , , and . Nucleic acids are found in every living thing plants, animals, bacteria, viruses, fungi that uses and converts energy. Each nucleic acid contains four of five possible nitrogen-containing bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U). The double stranded canonical helix (D1D2) consist of 31 base pairs in which strand D1 is pyrimidine rich and D2 is purine-rich strand (D2). The repetitive TTAGGG sequences in telomeric DNA can form quadruplexes. We will consider four different types of noncanonical base pairing: reverse Watson Crick, wobble, Hoogsteen and reverse Hoogsteen base pairs. Once an mRNA has been produced, it will associate with a ribosome, a molecular machine that specializes in assembling proteins out of amino acids. DNA uses RNA as a sort of protective mechanism, separating the DNA from the chaotic environment of the cytoplasm. The solitary A68 base is shown projecting away from the RNA. Human lactoferrin (LF) is a remarkable protein possessing many independent biological functions, including interaction with DNA. In the first paragraph of the section "Regulatory RNA (miRNAs and siRNAs)" it says "They bind to specific mRNA molecules (with partly or fully complementary sequences) and reduce their stability or interfere with their translation, providing a way for the cell to decrease or fine-tune levels of these mRNAs.". You might thus think of DNA as a computer hard drive or set of files, and RNA as a flash drive or jump drive. (ii) Nucleic acids (both DNA and RNA) are responsible for protein synthesis in a cell. The are termed wobble base pairs and include G-T(U) base pairs from ketoenol tautomerism and A-C base pairs from aminoimino tautomerism, as illustrated in Figure 18 above. The two sugar-phosphate backbones are shown in green and yellow. Figure \(\PageIndex{27}\): parallel quadruplexes from human telomeric DNA (1KF1). A and G are categorized aspurines, andC, T, and U are calledpyrimidines. Nucleoprotein is a conjugated protein structure consisting of a protein that is linked to a nucleic acid, either DNA abbreviated as . recognizes specific DNA sequence. What is a phosphate group? B-DNA The B-DNA is a right-handed helix and is the most common DNA conformation. Let us start the article by defining nucleic acids. What is a nitrogenous base? The variants in orientation of the hydrogen bonded base pairs and the corresponding parameters that define them are shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{17}\). The word de-oxy infers that deoxyribose has lost an oxygen atom. Carbohydrates are commonly used by cells as respiratory substrates. http://x3dna.org/highlights/schematiair-parameters (with permission). Not only this, but they are also essential for transferring information to new cells or the next generation of the living organisms. It is well known that greater the percentage of GC compared to AT, the greater the stability of the dsDNA, which translates into a higher "melting temperature (TM)", the temperature at which the dsDNA is converted to ssDNA. Direct link to Matt B's post Entirely true. Nucleoproteins are a type of proteins that are associated with the nucleic acids and ribosomes and lipoproteins, they often serve as a transport of lipids and storage proteins like vitelline. They serve as the primary information-carrying molecules. In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Thus, nucleosides are biologically important as they serve as a structural constituent of DNA and RNA. DNA structures gets obviously more complicated as it packs into the nucleus of a cell and forms chromosomes, as shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{32}\). All of these terms should be minimized to computatationally determine the lowest energy state for a given double-stranded nucleic acid. Disaccharides What type of molecule is shown in these two diagrams? 2. Acad. Within this structural motif, the phosphates within the backbone appear to zigzag, providing the name Z-DNA. Indeed, under physiological conditions, local DNA breathing has been evidenced at both ends of the DNA helix and B- to Z-DNA structural transitions have been observed in internal DNA regions. Nucleic acids were discovered in 1869 by Swiss biochemist Friedrich Miescher. Direct link to Ivana - Science trainee's post Yes, miRNA regulates prot, Posted 2 years ago. Adenosine 5'-ATP, triphosphate, is by far the most widely used for this purpose, but in some reactions, UTP, GTP, and CTP are also used. Each nucleotide consists of a nitrogen-containing aromatic base attached to a pentose (five-carbon) sugar, which is in turn attached to a phosphate group. Others water-soluble molecules like ethylene glycol ethers (polyethylene glycol-400) and diglyme (dimethyl ether of diethylene glycol), which are more hydrophobic than water, appear to reduce base stacking interactions while maintaining them, and at the same time allow longitudinal extension or breathing of the helix. The two codes are very different in their specifics, but the principle is the same. Image of the components of DNA and RNA, including the sugar (deoxyribose or ribose), phosphate group, and nitrogenous base. We will study packing of DNA in other sections. Before understanding the biological function of nucleic acids, we need to understand the term Nucleic Acid first. Evidence suggest that Hoogsteen base pairing may be iimportant in DNA replication, binding, damage or repair. The term wobble arise from the subtile conformational changes use to optimize the pairing of the triplets. They pair together in the following way: Cytosine (C) with Guanine (G) and Adenine (A) with Thymine (T), and they are essential for the DNAs double helix structure that resembles a twisted ladder. Figure \(\PageIndex{20}\) shows an interactive iCn3D model of the GT Wobble Base-Pairing in Z-DNA form of d(CGCGTG) (1VTT). Will the molecular structure of DNA become like RNA? The noncanonical structures are also important for RNA-protein interactions in the RNA region which binds proteins. A binds to and only to T in DNA, but it binds to only U in RNA. Because in eukaryotic cells double-stranded RNA is uncommon, its presence serves as an indicator of viral infection. Cellular metabolism is a function of DNA, where it integrates a complex set of biochemical pathways devoted to the maintenance of cell functions. Another question on Biology. Nucleic acids have been found in meteorites from space, proving that these complex molecules can be formed by natural causes even in environments where there is no life. The biological function of DNA is quite simple, to carry and protect the genetic code. The 3 bases on the mRNA are called the codon, and the 3 complementary bases on the tRNA are called the anticodon. For example. RNA uses the same nitrogenous bases as DNA, except for Thymine. The other type of nucleic acid, RNA, is mostly involved in protein synthesis. The four major classes of biological macromolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. This new strand is identical to the original DNA. (2019, July 26). Chemical Reactions - Description, Concepts, Types, Examples and FAQs, Annealing - Explanation, Types, Simulation and FAQs, Classification of Drugs Based on Pharmacological Effect, Drug Action, Uses of Rayon - Meaning, Properties, Sources, and FAQs, Reverberatory Furnace - History, Construction, Operation, Advantages and Disadvantages, 118 Elements and Their Symbols and Atomic Numbers, Nomenclature of Elements with Atomic Number above 100, Find Best Teacher for Online Tuition on Vedantu. USA 72, 737741. Nucleotides are synthesized from readily available precursors in the cell. The A-T bond strands also signal where DNA needs to separate for commonly transcribed genes, such as the TATA Box commonly found just before the beginning of gene sequences. Nucleic acids, and DNA in particular, are key macromolecules for the continuity of life. W. A. Benjamin, Inc., New York, 1976. Nucleic acids are like hard disk drives, which store the all essential source code or blueprint for making and repairing new cells. DNA must be stabile enough to be the carrier of genetic information but dynamic enough to allow events that required partial unfolding. A related type of nucleic acid, called ribonucleic acid (RNA), comes in different molecular forms that . In addition to having slightly different sets of bases, DNA and RNA nucleotides also have slightly different sugars. Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are the four main groups of biological macromolecules; each is an essential cell component and performs a variety of activities. For DNA, the 2-hydroxyl group is removed from the ribonucleoside diphosphate to give deoxyribonucleoside diphosphate. The third type of double helix formed is a left-handed helical structure known as the Z-form, or Z-DNA. It is well know that dsDNA structure is sensitive to hydration (see section on A, B, and Z DNA). This page titled 8.1: Nucleic Acids - Structure and Function is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Henry Jakubowski and Patricia Flatt. Lipids perform three primary biological functions within the body: they serve as structural components of cell membranes, function as energy storehouses, and function as important signaling molecules. Unlike the protein -helix, where the R-groups of the amino acids are positioned to the outside of the helix, in the DNA double-stranded helix, the nitrogenous bases are positioned inward and face each other. Solution 1 Two main functions of nucleic acids are: (i) DNA is responsible for the transmission of inherent characters from one generation to the next. For instance, some genes specify, DNA and RNA are polymers (in the case of DNA, often very long polymers), and are made up of monomers known as. John Wiley & Sons, London, New York, Sydney, Toronto, 1974. For that decoding process to occur, two RNA molecules, messenger RNA (mRNA) and a transfer RNA (t-RNA) covalently attached to a specific amino acid like glutamic acid, must bind to each other through a 3 base pair interaction. Inset: chemical structure of a parallel TAT triplet. Available at: https://www.mechanobio.info/genome-regulation/what-are-chromosomes-and-chromosome-territories/, National Human Genome Research Institute (2019) The Human Genome Project. Proteins and nucleic acids play important biological functions : they catalyze and regulate reactions, transport substrates, code and transcribe genetic information. Some Nucleotides Are Regulatory Molecules. As structure determines function and activity, these alternative structures also influence DNA/RNA function. Also, AT/GC are found in DNA while RNA is made from AU/GC. These relatively small molecules vary in size between 90 and 300 nucleotides. The functions of nucleic acids have to do with the storage and expression of genetic information. Hence AT and GC base pairs contribute equally to stability. As in the example above, single stranded sections can form intramolecular G-quadrplex from a GmXnGmXoGmXpGm sequence, where m is he number of Gs in each short setment (3 in the structure above). Google Scholar. The two newly created double-stranded daughter DNA molecules are then sorted between the two daughter cells (Figure 355), each containing one strand (but complementary rather than identical) from the parent dual - stranded DNA molecules (Figure355). Therefore, RNA clearly has the extra ability to serve as genetic information. Biological databases are stores of biological information. Hoogsteen base pairing is usually see when DNA is distorted through interactions with bound proteins and drugs that intercalate between base pairs. The nucleic acids consists of two major macromolecules, Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) that carry the genetic instructions for the development, functioning, growth and reproduction of all known organisms and viruses. Finally, a specialized enzyme called a kinase adds two phosphate groups using adenosine triphosphate (ATP) as the phosphate donor to form ribonucleoside triphosphate, the immediate precursor of RNA. (Copyright; author via source). DNA is guided by the development and reproduction of an organism - ultimately, its survival. Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, encodes the information cells need to make proteins. Based on the DNA sequence within the region, the hydrogen-bond potential created by the nitrogen and oxygen atoms present in the nitrogenous base pairs cause unique recognition features within the major and minor grooves, allowing for specific protein recognition sites to be created. Figure \(\PageIndex{18}\) shows an interactive iCn3D model of the REV Response element RNA complexed with REV peptide (1ETF). (This is referred to as. If you examine the iCn3D models of nucleic acids presented above, you will see the the base pairs are not perfectly flat but are twisted. The 2' carbon bears a hydroxyl group in ribose, but no hydroxyl (just hydrogen) in deoxyribose. The bases in nucleic acids can undergo tautomerization to produce forms that can base pair noncanonically. Each nucleic acid contains four of five possible nitrogen-containingbases:adenine(A),guanine(G),cytosine(C),thymine(T), anduracil(U). Nucleotides come in three flavors depending how many phosphates are included: the incorporation of one phosphate forms a nucleoside monophosphate, the incorporation of two phosphates forms a nucleoside diphosphate, and the incorporation of three phosphates forms a nucleoside triphosphate as shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\). The term polymer comes from poly for many and mer for parts, referring to the fact that each nucleic acid is made of many nucleotides. Building Blocks of Nucleic Acids 1. Of course the hydrogen bonds are not between backbone atoms but between side chain bases in double stranded DNA. Broadly speaking, DNA stores information, while RNA transfers information. They are a bit hard to describe in words so lets first examine one particular structure. A and G are categorized as purines, and C, T, and U are collectively called pyrimidines. Direct link to Evan Patev's post mRNA is like a recipe fro, Posted 6 years ago. Nearly all of the various RNA species are involved in some aspects of the synthesis of proteins. We have grown leaps and bounds to be the best Online Tuition Website in India with immensely talented Vedantu Master Teachers, from the most reputed institutions. They play an especially important role in directing protein synthesis. This is possible because the chemical properties of nucleotides allow 5 carbons to bond to multiple phosphates. (2019, July 22). (1976) Gordon Res. Biological functions of Nucleic Acids Aiswarya Surendran Follow B.Ed physical science at KUCTE, Kumarapuram, TVPM at Student Advertisement Recommended Structure and Function of Nucleic Acids cgales 17k views 15 slides Nucleic Acid / Protein structure & Functions RGCL 12k views 20 slides Structure of nucleic acid Dr Muhammad Mustansar 1.4k views Lab. Vedantu LIVE Online Master Classes is an incredibly personalized tutoring platform for you, while you are staying at your home. We also acknowledge previous National Science Foundation support under grant numbers 1246120, 1525057, and 1413739. The phosphate groups serve as links between the sugars in each strand of DNA. These structures can occur in DNA (and also RNA) that contain homopurine and homopyrimidine sequences that have a mirror repeat symmetry. Journal of Nucleic Acids 2010, Article ID: 290935, DOI: 10.4061/2010/290935 Available at: https://www.hindawi.com/journals/jna/2010/290935/, Mechanobiology Institute (2018) What are chromosomes and chromosome territories? The nitrogenous bases of nucleotides are organic (carbon-based) molecules made up of nitrogen-containing ring structures. (eds.) Click the image for a popup or use this external link: https://structure.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/iy5joFHDgWJQsQ6, Rotate the model to see 3 parallel layers of quadruplexes. They are essential for all the functions performed by a living cell. The well-known structure of the DNA double helix allows this information to be copied and passed on to the next generation. #structure of nucleic acids dna and rna, #structure of dna and rna, #what are nucleotides, #what is rna, #structure of dna and rna molecules, #nitrogenous ba. Figure \(\PageIndex{17}\): Base pair orientation and corresponding parameters in nucleic acids. Nucleotides are composed of a nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar, and a phosphate group. We also discussed the thermodynamics of protein stability, and how stability could be altered by changing environmental factors such as solution composition and temperature. Figure \(\PageIndex{19}\): Some noncanonical base nucleic acid base pairs. Sugimoto, K., Sugisaki, H., Okamoto, T., Takanami, M. (1975) Nucl. This type of RNA is called a, Importantly, not all genes encode protein products. Furthermore, slide or flip effects can also modify the geometrical orientation of the helix. Direct link to Erica Guira's post In the first paragraph of, Posted 4 years ago. Lets look at each part of a nucleotide in turn. The term G-protein actually comes from the G in GTP the same G thats found in the genetic code. Schaller, H., Gray, C., Herrmann, K. (1975) Proc. DNA functions are vital to inheritance, protein coding, and life's genetic blueprint. These are just some examples out of many types of noncoding and regulatory RNAs. When the DNA was damaged or passed on incorrectly, the scientists found that cells did not work properly. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). In both cases the end product is a nucleotide carrying a phosphate attached to the 5 carbon on the sugar. They are of two types: purines and pyrimidines. 2008 3DNA Nature Protocols paper (NP08), the initial 3DNA Nucleic Acids Research paper . Biological Functions of Nucleosides. The extension caused by these ethers and natural extensions would decrease base stacking but appear at the same time strengthening the hydrogen bonding between bases. DNA in vivo consist of two antiparallel strands intertwined to form the iconic DNA double-stranded helix. Ed. Structure of a tRNA. The most common nucleic acids in nature are DNA and RNA. To store and transmit hereditary information. Triple helix formation can also occur within a single strand of DNA. The two rings in purines are synthesized while attached to the ribose phosphate during the assembly of adenine or guanine nucleosides. The Biological Function of Nucleic Acids Hermann Heumann & Wolfram Zillig Chapter 1112 Accesses Abstract The function and organization of cells and organisms are determined by the type and quantity of protein contained therein. Larger propeller angles are associated with increased rigidity. A sufficiently skilled genetic programmer can create the instructions for a living cell from scratch using the nucleic acid code. There are two types of nucleic acid: RNA and DNA. Biological Functions of Nucleic Acids - DNA and RNA. In the next section, we will study the functions of RNA, which are much more numerous and complicated. Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Basics of Biomolecules Carbon is the central atom Carbon will bond covalently because of 4 valence electrons Carbon likes to share electrons with sulfur, phosphorous, oxygen, nitrogen, other. During processes that unravel DNA (replication, transcription, repair), self-association of individual mirror repeats can form a locally stable triple helix, as shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{31}\). More about Kevin and links to his professional work can be found at www.kemibe.com. In forming the reverse bases pairs, the pyrimidine can rotate 180o along the axis shown and the rotate in the plane to align the hydrogen bond donors and acceptors as shown in the top part of the figure. NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Business Studies, NCERT Solutions for Class 11 Business Studies, NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Social Science, NCERT Solutions for Class 9 Social Science, NCERT Solutions for Class 8 Social Science, CBSE Previous Year Question Papers Class 12, CBSE Previous Year Question Papers Class 10. These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. Here is an example: 5'-GCATGGTACG-3'. If you're seeing this message, it means we're having trouble loading external resources on our website. The second messenger is often a nucleotide. A major function of nucleic acids involves the storage and expression of genomic information. This observations support the simple notion that interbase hydrogen bonds is the source of dsDNA stability. The double stranded helix of DNA is not always stable. 10.1093/nar/gkz237. After looking at the myriad of structures showing the nearly parallel hydrogen bonded base pairs, and from ideas from most textbooks and classes you have taken, you probably think that double-stranded DNA is held together and stabilized by hydrogen bonds between the bases. The first part is true, T-A bonds are less stable and more likely to come apart. Incorporation of the incoming nucleoside triphosphate is mediated by the nucleophilic attack of the 3-OH of the growing DNA polymer. DNA supercoil. Recent research of condensates has focused on their biological functions with the discovery of properties and molecular mechanisms of their formation and function. Get study material notes on the biological functions of Nucleic Acids. (ii) Nucleic acids (both DNA and RNA) are responsible for protein synthesis in a cell. Alongside proteins, lipids and complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides), nucleic acids are one of the four major types of macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life. Reverse Watson Crick: The reverse Watson-Crick AT (AU) and GC pairs can sometimes be found at the end of DNA strands and also in RNA. The well-known . Are the functions of nucleic acids guided only by molecular forces and just appear to have intention or are there other forces at work that I'm not aware of? Some scientists have even suggested that such meteorites may have helped create the first self-replicating nucleic acid life on Earth. Biochimie. Scientists are still discovering new varieties of noncoding RNA. 3.1 Biological molecules. The structure contains a single DNA strand (5'-AGGGTTAGGGTTAGGGTTAGGG-3') which contains four TTAGGG repeats. In virtually every cell outside the plant kingdom, Cyclic AMP serves regulatory functions. Nucleotside triphosphates, especially ATP, as the universal currency of energy in biological systems. Consider just two of these, the propellor and twist angles. Coordination Chemistry Reviews 327 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2016.06.002 Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303846502_Metal_ion_induced_heterogeneity_in_RNA_folding_studied_by_smFRET, Hardison, R. (2019) B-Form, A-Form, and Z-Form of DNA. The name comes from the fact that these molecules are acids that is, they are good at donating protons and accepting electron pairs in chemical reactions and the fact that they were first discovered in the nuclei of our cells. Nucleic Acids Store Information Like Computer Code, Nucleic Acids are Polymers of Nucleotides, RNA can carry hereditary information, just like DNA, RNA can form enzymes that can catalyze chemical reactions, just like proteins. DNA is common to all organisms, all organisms use the same 4 nitrogenous bases, A T, C G. Entirely true. Such a domain called a nucleotide-binding fold, is found in many enzymes that bind ATP and nucleotide cofactors. They are the cell's main information-carrying molecules and they ultimately determine the inherited traits of every living organism by guiding the entire process of protein synthesis. The processes of DNA replication and repair will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 28. Within the nucleus, the DNA is protected. They are naturally occurring chemical compounds. These large molecules are called nucleic acids because they were first identified inside the nucleus of cells, however, they are also found in mitochondria and chloroplasts as well as bacteria and viruses. Retrieved 06:16, July 27, 2019, from en.Wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gene_structure&oldid=906938498. Corrections? A different kind of RNA, transfer RNA (tRNA) helps in the assembly process of proteins from amino acids, and ribosomal RNA (rRNA) makes up most of the organelles called ribosomes, which also participate in protein synthesis. The further hydrolysis of the pyrophosphate (Pi-Pi) releases a large amount of energy ensuring that the overall reaction has a negative G. Direct link to Arki's post https://www.khanacademy.o, Posted 7 years ago. Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\) shows types of "secondary (flat representations) and their 3D or tertiary representations found in nucleic acids. This seems possible, but there is no firm evidence to say whether it is true. Because the DNA source code is just as vital to a cell as your operating system is to your computer, DNA must be protected from potential damage. It creates DNA and RNA, which store the information needed by cells to create proteins. The sugar in DNA is deoxyribose while in RNA it is ribose. Composed of fats and oils, lipids are molecules that yield high energy and have a chemical composition mainly of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Goffena, J et al. This is, fittingly, mRNA (m stands for "messenger"). Adapted from Calladine and Drews schematic box representation. 248 The CRISPR/Cas system was originally discovered in bacteria and shows an antiviral function by cleaving nucleic acids that . Figure \(\PageIndex{29}\): Base pairing in triple helix motifs. Abstract. An evolutionist would say it's all down to chance. Available at: https://www.genome.gov/human-genome-project, Wikipedia contributors. Direct link to StephYakir87's post The first part is true, T, Posted 7 years ago. If a segment is longer than others, a G might be in a loop. Would it be possible for there to be nitrogenous bases with more than two fused carbon rings? For instance, if you know that the sequence of one strand is 5-AATTGGCC-3, the complementary strand must have the sequence 3-TTAACCGG-5. Cold Spring Harbor Monograph Series, Cold Spring Harb. Guerrini, L. and Alvarez-Puebla, R.A. Nanomaterials 2021, 11, 326. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11020326. RNA Polymerase. Specific and locally higher concentrations of divalent cations or positively charged polyamines like spermine act to stabilized the extra negative charge density from the binding of a third polyanionic DNA strand. . A creationist would say that this is part of the intelligent design. It is not surprising, given the enormity of the functions of DNA in the human body and its responsibility for the growth and maintenance of life that the discovery of DNA has led to so many developments in the treatment of various types of diseases.